Method	URL Pattern	Handler	Action
GET	/v1/healthcheck	healthCheckHandler	Show application information
GET	/v1/movies	listMoviesHandler	Show the details of all movies
POST	/v1/movies	createMoviesHandler	Create a new movie
GET	/v1/movies/:id	showMovieHandler	Show the details of a specific movie
PUT	/v1/movies/:id	editMovieHandler	Edit the details of a specific movie
DELETE	/v1/movies/:id	deleteMovieHandler	Delete a specific movie

Installation

Launch API

go run ./cmd/api

If you want, you can also verify that the command-line flags are working correctly by specifying alternative port and env values when starting the application.
When you do this, you should see the contents of the log message change accordingly. For example :

go run ./cmd/api -port=3030 -env=production
time=2025-10-10T11:08:00.000+02:00 level=INFO msg= "starting server" addr=:3030 env=production

Test endpoints

curl -i localhost:4000/v1/healthcheck
The -i flag in the command above instructs curl to display the HTTP response headers as well as the response body.

Result

HTTP/1.1 200 OK
Date: Mon, 05 Apr 2021 17:46:14 GMT
Content-Length: 58
Content-Type: text/plain; charset=utf-8

status: available
environment: development
version: 1.0.0

API Versioning

There are two comon approaches to doing this :

By prefixing all URLs with your API version, like /v1/healthcheck or /v2/healthcheck
By using custom Accept and Content-Type headers on requests and responses to convey the API version, like Accept: application/vnd.greenlight-v1

From an HTTP semantics point of view, using headers to convey the API version is the 'purer' approach. But from a user-experience point of view, using a URL prefix is arguably better. It makes it possible for developers to see which version of the API is being used at a glance, and it also means that the API can still be explored using a regular web browser (which is harder if custom headers are required).

SQL Migrations

The first thing we need to do is generate a pair of migration files using the migrate create command :

migrate create -seq -ext=.sql -dir=./migrations create_movies_table

In this command:

The -seq flag indicates that we want to use sequential numbering like 0001, 0002, ... for the migration files (instead of a Unix timestamp, which is the default).
The -ext flag indicates that we want to give the migration files the extension .sql.
The -dir flag indicates that we want to store the migration files in the ./migrations directory (which will be created automatically if it doesn't already exist).
The name create_movies_table is a descriptive label that we give the migration files to signify their contents.

Executing the migrations

migrate -path=./migrations -database=$GREENLIGHT_DB_DSN up

Note: You may get the error: error: pq: permission denied for schema public... when running this command. It's because Postgres might revoke the CREATE permission from all users except a database ownser.

To get around this, set the database owner to the greenlight user:

ALTER DATABASE greenlight OWNER TO greelight;

If that still doesn't work, try explicitly granting the CREATE privileges to the greenlight user:

GRANT CREATE ON DATABASE greenlight TO greelight;

Additional Information

How different Go Types are encoded

The following table summarizes how different Go types are mapped to JSON data types during encoding :

Go type	JSON type
bool	JSON boolean
string	JSON string
int, uint, float*, rune	JSON number
array, slice	JSON array
struct, map	JSON object
nil pointers, interface values, slices, maps, etc	JSON null
chan, func, complex*	Not supported
time.Time	RFC3339-format JSON string
[]byte	Base64-encoded JSON string

The last two of these are special cases which deserve a bit more explanation :

Go time.Time values (which are actually a struct behind the scenes) will be encoded as a JSON string in RFC 3339 format like "2020-11-08T06:27:59+01:00", rather than as a JSON object.
A []byte slice will be encoded as a base64-encoded JSON string, rather than as a JSON array. So, for example, a byte slice of []byte{'h','e','l','l','o'} would appear as "aGVsbG8=" in the JSON output. The base64 encoding uses padding and the standard character set.

A few other important things to mention :

Encoding of nested objects is supported. So, for example, if you have a slice of structs in Go that will encode to an array of objects in JSON.
Channels, functions and complex number types cannot be encoded. If you try to do so, you'll get a json.UnsupportedTypeError error at runtime.
Any pointer values will encode as the value pointed to.

Enveloping responses

The data of the endpoint /v1/movies/123 is nested under the key "movie", rather than being the top-level JSON object itself.
Enveloping response data like this isn't strictly necessary, and whether you choose to do so is partly a matter of style and taste. But there are a few tangible benefits :

Including a key name (like "movie") at the top-level of the JSON helps make the response more self-documenting. For any humans who see the response out of context, it is a bit easier to understand what the data relates to.
It reduces the risk of errors on the client side, because it's harder to accidentally process one response thinking that it is something different. To get at the data, a client must explicitly reference it via the "movie" key.
If we always envelope the data returned by our API, then we mitigate a security vulnerability in older browsers which can arise if you return a JSON array as a response.

Advanced JSON Customization

When Go is encoding a particular type to JSON, it looks to see if the type has a MarshalJSON() method implemented on it. If it has, then Go will call this method to determine how to encode it.

Strictly speaking, when Go is encoding a particular type to JSON it looks to see if the type satisfies the json.Marshaler interface, which looks like this :

type Marshaler interface { MarshalJSON() ([]byte, error) }

If the type does satisfy the interface, then Go will call its MarshalJSON() method and use the []byte slice that it returns as the encoded JSON value.

If the type doesn't have a MarshalJSON() method, then Go will fall back to trying to encode it to JSON based on its own internal set of rules.

So, if we want to customize how something is encoded, all we need to do is implement a MarshalJSON() method on it which returns a custom JSON representation of itself in a []byte slice.

An example is available here : internal/data/runtime.go

Supported destinations types

It's important to mention that certain JSON types can only be successfully decoded to certain Go types. For example, if you have the JSON string "foo"" it can be decoded into a Go string, but trying to decode it into a Go int or bool will result in an error at runtime.

The following tables shows the supported target decode destinations for the different JSON types :

JSON type	Supported Go types
JSON boolean	bool
JSON string	string
JSON number	int, uint, float*, rune
JSON array	array, slice
JSON object	struct, map

Triaging the Decode error

The Decode() method could potentially return the following five types of error :

json.SyntaxError : There is a syntax problem with the JSON being decoded.
io.ErrUnexpectedEOF : There is a syntax problem with the JSON being decoded.
json.UnmarshalTypeError : A JSON value is not appropriate for the destination Go type.
json.InvalidUnmarshalError : The decode destination is not valid (usually because it is not a pointer). This is actually a problem with our application code, not the JSON itself.
io.EOF : The JSON being decoded is empty.

System-generated error responses

In certain scenarios Go's http.Server may still automatically generate and send plain-text HTTP responses. These scenarios include when :

The HTTP request specifies an unsupported HTTP protocol version.
The HTTP request contains a missing or invalid Host header, or multiple Host headers.
The HTTP request contains an empty Content-Length header.
The HTTP request contains an unsupported Transfer-Encoding header.
The size of the HTTP request headers exceeds the server's MaxHeaderBytes setting.
The client makes a HTTP request to an HTTPS server.

For example, if we try sending a request with an invalid Host header value, we will get a response like this:

`$ curl -i -H "Host: こんにちは" http://localhost:4000/v1/healthcheck HTTP/1.1 400 Bad Request: malformed Host header Content-Type: text/plain; charset=utf-8 Connection: close

400 Bad Request: malformed Host header`

Unfortunately, these responses are hard-coded into the Go Standard library, and there's nothing we can do to customize them to use JSON instead.

But while this is something to be aware of, it's not necessarily something to worry about. In a production environment it's relatively unlikely that well-behaved, non-malicious, clients would trigger these responses anyway, and we shouldn't be overly concerned if bad clients are sometimes set a plain-text response instead of JSON.

Panic recovery in other goroutines

It's important to realize that our middleware will only recover panics that happen in the same goroutine that executed the recoverPanic() middleware.

If, for example, you have a handler which spins up another goroutine (e.g. to do some background processing), then any panics that happen in the background goroutine will not be recovered - not by the recoverPanic() middleware... and not by the panic recovery build into http.Server. These panics will cause your application to exit and bring down the server.

So, if you are spinning up additional goroutines from within your handlers and there is any chance of a panic, you must make sure that you recover any panics from within those goroutines too.

A demonstration will follow when we will use a background goroutine to send welcome emails to our API users.

Panicking vs returning errors

The decision to panic in the readJSON() helper if we get a json.InvalidUnmarshalError error isn't taken lightly. It's generally considered best practice in Go to return your errors and handle them gracefully.

But - in some specific circumstances - it can be OK to panic. And you shouldn't be too dogmatic about not panicking when it makes sense to.

It's helpful here to distinguish between the two classes of error that your application might encounter.

The first class of errors are expected errors that may occur during normal operation. Some examples of expected errors are those caused by a database query timeout, a network resource being unavailable, or bad user input. These errors don't necessarily mean there is a problem with your program itself - in fact, they're often caused by things outside the control of your program. Almost all the time, it's good practice to return these kinds of errors and handle them gracefully.

The other class of errors are unexpected errors.These are errors which should not happen during normal operation, and if they do it is probably the result of a developer mistake or a logical error in your codebase.These errors are truly exceptional, and using panic in these circumstances is more widely accepted. In fact, the Go standard library frequently does this when you make a logical error or try to use the language features in an unintended way - such as when trying to access an out-of-bounds index in a slice, or trying to close an already closed channel.

I'd recommend trying to return and gracefully handle unexpected errors in most cases. The exception to this is when returning the error adds an unacceptable amount of error handling to the rest of your codebase.

'Go By example' page on panics summarizes all of this quite nicely:

A panic typically means something went unexpectedly wrong. Mostly we use it to fail fast on errors that shouldn't occur during normal operation and that we aren't prepared to handle gracefully.

Performance

json.MarshalIndent() takes 65% longer to run and uses around 30% more memory than json.Marshal(), as well as making two more heap allocations. Those figures will change depending on what you're encoding, but they're fairly indicative of the performance impact.

For most applications this performance difference simply isn't something that you need to worry about. In real terms, we're talking about a few thousandths of a millisecond - and the improved readability of responses is probably worth this trade-off.
But if your API is operating in a very resource-constrained environment, or needs to manage extremely high levels of traffic, then this is worth being aware of, and you may prefer to stick with using json.Marshal() instead.

Optimizing PostgreSQL settings

The default settings that PostgreSQL ships with are quite conservative, and you can often improve the performance of your database by tweaking the values in your postgresql.conf file.

You can check where your postgresql.conf file lives with the following SQL query :

$ sudo -u postgres psql -c 'SHOW config_file;'
----------------------------------------------
/etc/postgresql/15/main/postgresql.conf
(1 row)

To read more about PostgreSQL optimization :
https://www.enterprisedb.com/postgres-tutorials/how-tune-postgresql-memory

To generate suggested values based on your available system hardware, you can use :
https://pgtune.leopard.in.ua

Configuring the Database Connection Pool

You should explicitly set a MaxOpenConns value. This should be comfortably below any hard limits on the number of connections imposed by your database and infrastructure, and you may also want to consider keeping it fairly low to act as a rudimentary throttle.
For this project we'll set a MaxOpenConns limit of 25 connections. This is a reasonable starting point for small-to-medium web applications and APIs, but ideally you should tweak this value for your hardware depending on the results of benchmarking and load-testing.
In general, higher MaxOpenConns and MaxIdleConns values will lead to better performance. But the returns are diminishing, and you should be aware that having a too-large idle connection pool (with connections that are not frequently re-used) can actually lead to reduced performance and unnecessary resource consumption.
Because MaxIdleConns should always than or equal to MaxOpensConns, we'll also limit MaxIdleConns to 25 connections for this project.
To mitigate the risk from point 2 above, you should generally set a ConnMaxIdleTime value to remove idle connections that haven't been used for a long time. In this project we'll set a ConnMaxIdleTime duration of 15 minutes.
It's probably OK to leave ConnMaxLifetime as unlimited, unless your database imposes a hard limit on connection lifetime, or you need it specifically to facilitate something like gracefully swapping databases. Neither of those things apply in this project, so we'll leave this as the default unlimited setting.